Normal parental effort and abortion

We owe our children at least a normal degree of effor for their welfare. For instance, we owe it to them to provide food, water, education and affection in normal circumstances by the normal means of doing so. It is plausible that what we owe our children goes significantly beyond the provision of a normal degree of effort for their welfare. Maybe working 6-10 hours a day at a job to provide for one’s family is a normal degree of effort, but if the only way to keep one’s children from starving is to work 11 hours a day, that’s surely one’s duty. But when the effort would go far enough beyond what is normal, duty is replaced by supererogatory heroism.

Now, it is far from clear what degree of effort does or does not exceed what is normal. However, the following seems clear:

1. An effort that was practically necessary for the survival of virtually every single child in human history, and was typically expended by a parent, does not exceed normal parental effort.

For instance, physically putting food in the mouth of an infant was practically necessary for the survival of virtually every single child in human history, and probably every single such child, unless some myth like that of Romulus and Remus turns out to reflect a real case, and was typically expended by a parent. Thus, the effort of putting food in infants’ mouths is normal, and hence owed.

But:

2. Pregnancy was practically necessary for the survival of every single child in human history, and was typically engaged in by a parent.

Hence, wherever the required effort line lies, it does not lie below the level of pregnancy as such. In particular, it follows that Judith Jarvis Thomson’s violinist argument cannot apply to every pregnancy. In fact, I think it is plausible that a typical pregnancy constitutes a normal degree of parental effort, and hence her argument does not apply to a typical pregnancy either.

Cloning and parental permission

1. If x is a biological parent of y and z is y’s full sibling, then x is a biological parent of z.

2. No one should be made a biological parent of someone without their permission.

3. One’s clone is one’s full sibling.

4. So, cloning oneself is makes one’s biological parents be the biological parents of one’s clone. (By 1 and 3)

5. So, one shouldn’t clone oneself without one’s biological parents’ permission. (By 2 and 4)

(I also think that one shouldn’t clone oneself, period, but that’s a different line of thought.)

Duties to siblings: A neglected topic in ethics

There is significant philosophical reflection on the parent-child relationship and the associated duties. But the sibling relationship is, as far as I know, largely neglected. But it's very interesting. Few have a choice whether to be a sibling. Many of us are already siblings from the first moment of our existence, and those who became siblings later were rarely consulted by their parents on whether they wanted to do so. Most of us who are siblings became siblings in childhood, and I suppose we could say that our parents had the authority to make us into siblings at that time. But one can become a sibling in adulthood, too.

Parenthood can be at least in part (and only in part, I've argued) ceded to another by adoption. But while Western culture historically does have siblingmaking (adelphopoiesis) rituals, these are merely the creation of a new sibling relationship rather than the transfer of the relationship. (One might think that adoption transfers the sibling relationship. I am not sure about that. But in any case, adoption is typically a decision by the parents.)

So not only do we typically become siblings with no initial choice, but we have no choice whether to remain siblings. This is made easier by the fact that in the ordinary course of things, duties to one's siblings are less onerous than duties to one's children. But that is only in the ordinary course of things. A stepmotherly nature--or a Providence that cares more about character than comfort--can throw us into circumstances where our duties to siblings are extremely onerous. (This also illustrates a comment from Mark Murphy that we should not expect moral burdens to be equally distributed.)

But what are the duties we have to our siblings? How do they change with the age of the siblings and other differences in circumstances? How are these duties spread among a multiplicity of siblings if there more than two?

Parental duty

Another excerpt from my forthcoming One Body book, this time from the discussion of gamete donation (challenge to the reader: find the relevance of this to gamete donation):

Now, it is not merely the duty of the parents to bring it about that the children are cared for and appropriately educated morally, religiously and academically. Rather, it is the duty of the parents to care for and educate the child—i.e., to do it themselves. In caring for and educating the child, parents will make use of the help of others, including that of family members, friends, and professionals. How much the parents can rely on the help of others before they have failed in their duty of caring for and educating the child will depend on the circumstances.
There are thus two aspects of the parental duty: (a) caring for and educating, and (b) ensuring that the child is cared for and educated. In other words, there is the aspect of parental activity and the aspect of results. These two aspects need to be balanced prudently, and, moreover, balanced with other duties the parents may have; how they are balanced will depend on particular circumstances. In no cases will it be desirable and rarely will it be possible for the parents directly to care for and educate the child in all respects with the help of no one else. Moral education, for instance, requires contact with virtuous people of a significant variety of different characters, not just the parents. Academic education should typically include education in subjects in which the parents lack competency. The need to work to earn money to provide for the child can force the parents to delegate a significant degree care to a third party.
Here is an observation worth making. In most couples, there will be specialization. Thus, the mother might be working long hours to earn the money needed to diaper, feed, clothe, and house the child, while the father might be changing the diapers, feeding, clothing, and otherwise taking care of the child for most of the day. It might seem that in such cases, each parent will be neglecting an aspect of the parental responsibility to himself or herself care for and educate the child. But we can respond to this by noting that parents should be friends of each other, and bringing in an idea from Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle considers what value there in having good friends. He observes that friends share a life, a friend is “another self,” and one can be active through one’s friend’s activity: what the friend does virtuously is something that accrues to oneself.

Parenthood, adoption and sperm banks

Al, a single father of young Beth, found himself destitute. To give Beth hope for a future life, he agreed to have Charlie adopt Beth. Charlie was much better off than Al, and as far as Al could tell, was an excellent prospect for fatherhood. Unfortunately, soon after the adoption, Al and Charlie's fortunes reversed. Now Charlie was destitute while Al was well off. Charlie approached Al, suggesting that perhaps Al could re-adopt Beth. But Al said: "She is your daughter and no longer mine, and hence the responsibility is yours." Charlie further asked for financial help for Beth, indicating that he and Beth's health was poor and he (Charlie) could not afford the treatment she needed. Al responded: "Beth is not my daughter. Thus, while her misery has a call on me, it no more has a call on me than the misery of my other people I come in contact with. And I am already sufficiently contributing to the alleviation of the misery of other people, by giving most of my income and available time to various organizations that work with the needy in the city. Moreover, my doing so is financially more efficient. Beth's medical needs are particularly expensive. For the cost of alleviating her misery, I can alleviate the misery of two other poor children. Of course, if Beth were my daughter, her needs would take priority. But she isn't—she's your daughter."

Unless you're a utilitarian, and perhaps even if you are, I think you will share my strong moral intuition that Al is doing something seriously wrong. There are two aspects of this wrong. First, we assume that Charlie has done something good to Al when Al was in need—he took on Beth—and Al is being ungrateful. But we can tweak the story to make Al owe no gratitude to Charlie. Perhaps Al had already done as great a good to Charlie, or perhaps Charlie took on Beth solely for the sake of a tax break and Al was initially mistaken about Charlie's motives.

Second, Al owes more to Beth than he owes to other needy children. Adoption does not, then, completely negate parental duties. In fact, many onerous duties remain with Al, conditionally on Charlie being unable to fulfill them. Beth is not a stranger to Al. I do not know whether we should say that Beth is Al's daughter, but even if she not Al's daughter, the relationship that Al has to her is sufficient to ensure that he is morally responsible for her needs in a way in which he is not morally responsible for a stranger's needs.

But now Al's relationship to Beth is that of merely biological father. This means that the relationship of merely biological father is sufficient to trigger serious duties.

And this, in turn, makes giving sperm to a sperm bank seriously morally problematic. For by so doing, the man is consenting to being the biological father to many children. Given the numbers, it is not unlikely that some of these children will not have their basic needs—whether emotional, intellectual, spiritual or physical—met. In those cases, the donor would have a serious responsibility for meeting these needs. But this is a responsibility he cannot fulfill since he does not even know who these biological children of his are. Therefore, by donating sperm, the donor has consented to a situation where it is likely that he would be failing to meet his serious responsibilities, and where he cannot even seriously try to meet his responsibilities due to confidentiality rules. And that is, surely, morally problematic, even if we bracket all the other problematic aspects of sperm donation.

Notice that any statistics to the effect that adopted children have their needs as well met as biological children will not help here. For what generates the problem I am now discussing are two things. The first is the man is apt to gain many biological children whom he does not know about, adopted into many families, and it is quite probable that at least one of these families is not going to meet the childrens' basic emotional, intellectual, spiritual and/or physical needs. Thus it is rather more probable that he will have responsibilities he is not fulfilling than if he just conceived several children with a woman he was married to, since in the latter case there would only be one family to worry about. Second, in the sperm donation case, the man has responsibilities he cannot even seriously try to fulfill, and that seems a very unfortunate situation.

This improves on an argument I posted a couple of years ago.

Anonymous sperm donation

Here is a valid argument:

1. At least barring commensurate reasons, it is wrong to act in such a way that one will acquire a basic and serious human responsibility that one does not plan on fulfilling. (Premise)
2. If one consensually reproduces, then one acquires a basic and serious human responsibility of parenthood for the offspring. (Premise)
3. Anonymous sperm donors consensually reproduce the offspring that comes from their donated sperm. (Premise)
4. Therefore, anonymous sperm donors acquire the basic and serious human responsibility of parenthood for the offspring. (By (2) and (3))
5. Anonymous sperm donors typically do not plan to fulfill their parental responsibilities towards the offspring coming from their donated sperm. (Premise)
6. Anonymous sperm donors typically lack reasons for the donation commensurate with the acquiring of unfulfilled parental responsibilities. (Premise)
7. Therefore, typically, sperm donors act wrongly. (By (1), (4), (5) and (6))

I suspect it's sound, too.