Towards a solution to the "God as author of evil" problem for the Thomistic model of meticulous providence

On the Thomistic primary/secondary causation model of meticulous divine providence, when we act wrongly, God fully determines the positive aspects of the action with primary causation, and we in parallel cause the action with secondary causation.

Like many people, I worry that this makes God the author of sin in an objectionable way.

Alice and Bob are studying together for a calculus exam that will be graded on a curve. In order that she may do terribly on the exam, and thus that he might do better, and hence be more likely to get into his dream PhD program in ethics, Bob lies to Alice, who has missed three weeks of class, that the derivative of the logarithm is the exponential.

What does God cause in Bob’s action on the Thomistic model? It seems that all of the following are positive aspects:

1. The physical movements in Bob’s mouth, throat, and lungs.

2. The sounds in the air.

So far we don’t have a serious theological problem. For (1) and (2) are not intrinsically bad, since Bob could virtuously utter the same sounds while playacting on stage. But let’s add some more aspects:

3. Bob’s intention that the speech constitute an assertion of the proposition that the derivative of the logarithm is the exponential.

4. Bob’s intention that the asserted proposition be a falsehood that Alice comes to believe and that leads to her doing terribly on the exam.

Perhaps one can argue that falsity a negative thing—a lack of conformity with reality. However, intending falsity seems to be a positive thing, a positive (but wicked) act of the will. Thus it seems that (3) and (4) are positive things. But once we put together all of (1)–(4), or even just (3) and (4), then it’s hard to deny that what we have is something wicked, and so if God is intending all of (1)–(4), it’s hard to avoid the idea that this makes God responsible for the sin in a highly problematic way.

There may be a way out, however. In both written and spoken language, meaning is normally not constituted just by the positive aspects of reality but also by negative ones. In spoken language, we can think of the positive aspects as the peaks of the soundwaves (considered as pressure waves in the air). But if you remove the troughs from the soundwaves, you lose the communication. In print, on the other hand, the meaning depends not just on the ink that’s there, but on the ink that’s not there. A page wholly covered with ink means nothing. We only have meaningful letters because the inked regions are surrounded by non-inked regions.

It could well turn out that the language of the mind in discursively thinking beings like us is like that as well, so that a thought or intention is constituted not only by ontologically positive but also by ontologically negative aspects. Now you could be responsible for the ink within the print inscription

5. The derivative of the logarithm is the exponential

without being responsible for the inscription. For instance, you and a friend might have had a plan to draw a black rectangle and you divided up the labor as follows: you inked the region of rectangle covered by the letters of “The derivative of the logarithm is the exponential” and then your friend would ink the rest of the containing rectangle—i.e., everything outside the letters. But your friend didn’t do the job. Similarly, then, if intentions are constituted by both positive and negative features, God could intend the positive features of an intention without being responsible for the intention as such.

This does place constraints on the language of the mind, i.e., on the actual mental accidents that constitutes our thoughts, and specifically our intentions. Note, though, that we don’t need that all intentions have a negative constituent. Only intentions to produce negative things, like falsehood, need to have a negative constituent for us to avert the problem of God willing intentional sin. We could imagine a written language where positive phrases are written in two colors of ink, one for the letters and the other for the surrounding rectangle, and their negations are written by omitting the ink for the letters. In such a language, statements involving positive phrases are purely positive, while those involving negative phrases are partly negative.

I am not very happy with this solution. I still worry that being responsible for the ink in (5) makes one responsible for (5) when one chooses not to have the rest of the rectangle filled in.

An argument against the Thomistic primary/secondary causation account of strong providence

Most people agree that one cannot have circularity in the order of explanation when one keeps the type of explanation fixed. Some like me think one cannot have circularity in the order of explanation at all. I argued for this thesis in my previous post today. Now I want to draw an interesting application.

On one influential (and I think exegetically correct, pace Eleonore Stump) reading of Aquinas, God decides what our free choices will be. Our free choices cannot be determined by created causes, but they are determined by God. This is because God’s causation is primary causation which is of a different sort from the secondary causation which is creaturely causation. God can primarily cause you to freely secondarily cause something, and this is how providence and free will interact. Often the analogy between an author and a character is given: the author decides what the character will freely do and this does not infringe on the character’s freedom.

But now observe this (which was brought home to me by a paper of one of our grad students). On this picture, God will presumably sometimes providentially make earlier actions happen because of later ones. Thus, God may want you to perform some heroic self-sacrifice in ten years. So, right now God prepares you for this by having you freely engage in small self-sacrifices now. In the “because” corresponding to the explanatory order of providence and primary causation, we thus have:

1. You engage in small self-sacrifices because you will engage in a great self-sacrifice.

However, divine primary causation does not undercut secondary causation, and we have the standard Aristotelian story of habituation at the level of secondary causation in light of which we have:

2. You will engage in a great self-sacrifice because you are engaging in small self-sacrifices.

These explanations form a heterotypic explanatory loop (i.e., we have explanations of two different sorts in opposite directions). But if I am right that no explanatory loop is possible, the above story is not possible. However, there is nothing to rule out the above story if the above Thomistic account of primary and secondary causation’s role in providence is correct. Hence, I think we should reject that account.

Thomism, chance and cooperative providence

Thomists have two stories about how God can act providentially in the world. First, God can work simply miraculously, directly producing an effect that transcends the relevant created causal powers. Second, God can work cooperatively: whenever any finite causal agency is exercised, God intentionally cooperates with it through his primary causation, in such a way that it is up to God which of the causal agents natural effects is produced.

I think there is a difficult problem for cooperative divine agency. Suppose Alice is desperate for food for her children. She finds an indeterministic alien device which has the following property. If she presses the big button on it, the machine has probability 1/2 of producing enough food for a month for her family, and probability 1/2 of giving her a mild shock and turning off for a month.

Alice says a quick but sincerely prayer and presses the button. Then, presumably:

1. The probability that the machine will produce food is 1/2 conditionally on God not working miraculously.

But now notice:

2. Necessarily, if God does not work miraculously, the machine will produce food if and only if God intentionally connaturally cooperates with the machine to produce food.

From (1) and (2) we can conclude:

3. The probability that God will intentionally cooperates with the machine to produce food is 1/2 conditionally on God not working miraculously.

But imagine a different machine, where pressing the button has probability 1/2 of producing enough round pizza for a week and probability 1/2 of producing enough square pizza for a week. If Alice pressed the button on that machine, God, in acting cooperatively, would not have any significant reason to make the output of the machine come out one way or another.

In the round-or-square-pizza machine, we would expect the probability that God would cooperate to produce a particular outcome to be 1/2. But in the food-or-nothing machine, God does have a good reason to make the output of the machine be food: namely, God loves Alice and her family. We would expect the statistics for divine intentional cooperation to be different in the case of the two machines. But they are the same. In other words, it seems that God’s cooperative providence cannot depart from the statistics built into the natures of creatures. Yet that providence is fully under God’s voluntary control according to Thomism. This is puzzling.

If the Thomist says that God’s special providence is always exercised miraculously rather than cooperatively, the problem disappears. Absent special providential reasons, God has reason to follow the natural statistics of the machines. But if we allow that God sometimes exercises his special providence cooperatively, that should skew the statistics, and it cannot do that given the argument from (1) and (2) to (3).

Restricting special providence to miracles is a real option, but it destroys one of the advantages that Thomism has over competing theories.

Just deserts

The following argument is valid:

1. (Premise) When one gets one's just deserts, one gets what one deserves.
2. (Premise) One can only deserve that comes from an agent or group of agents.
3. (Premise) There are cases of getting one's just deserts such that unless there is a God, then what one gets does not come from an agent or group of agents.
4. So, when one one gets one's just deserts, one gets something that comes from an agent. (1 and 2)
5. So, there is a God. (3 and 4)

The kinds of cases that I am thinking about in (3) are cases like when one has done something utterly terrible, and then an avalanche kills one, or one has done something really good, and then one wins a non-crooked lottery. These are cases where the only candidate for an agent behind the just deserts is God.

The basic line of thought is that one can talk about someone getting justice in cases where there is no human agency. But justice seems to be essentially the work of an agent or community. So either we are mistaken in talking of justice in such cases or we need to posit Providence (or aliens who work providentially, but the divine Providence hypothesis has other advantages).

History is a ripping good yarn

1. If x has a great plot, then it is probably not the case that either (a) x was produced by no authors or (b) x was produced by a largely unstructured committee of authors.
2. Human history has a great plot.
3. Human history is produced by God or by no authors or by a largely unstructured committee of authors (= all of us).
4. Human history is neither produced by no authors nor a by largely unstructured committee of authors. (1 and 2, non-deductive)
5. Human history is produced by God. (3 and 4)

Evidence for (2) is just how good plotwise history books are even when accurate. If one disputes that human history has a great plot as a whole, one might take some smaller portion of human history, but nonetheless one big enough that an analogue of (4) holds for it (so, not a part of human history dominated by a single figure like Napoleon).

[Edited for clarity.]